Utilitarianism Essay Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism Essay Essay Utilitarianism is a theory in ethics regarding actions that maximize utility. Utilitarianism is human- centered and has a foundation of morality. One could say this theory holds to happiness as the principle, at least that is what John Mill proposes. Mills is well known for being not only a great philosopher of his time, but also an advocate for utilitarianism, in so much that Mills believed and even improved upon Bentham’s views. John Stuart Mill was the most famous and influential British philosopher of the nineteenth century (Clark, 2003). Mill felt that the foundation of morals, â€Å"utility† or the greatest happiness principle, holds actions are right in a certain proportion because they tend to promote happiness; and wrong because they produce just the opposite of happiness. Happiness is pleasure, with the absence of pain; unhappiness, equals pain and the absence of pleasure. Mill felt that higher pleasures are more valuable than lower ones and also better (Peck, 2006). Pleasure to Mill’s differs in quality and quantity. Mill felt that a person’s achievements and goals such as virtuous living should be recognized as a part of their happiness. Mill believed that happiness is the only basis of morality, and that happiness is the only thing people truly desire. Mill’s take on justice was that it is based on utility and happiness and that rights only exist because they are necessary for a person’s happiness (Peck, 2006). When speaking of qualitative and quantitative utilitarianism there are differences within the two. They both measure the value of different levels of happiness (Ring, 2010). Qualitative utilitarianism entails that mental pleasures are different and also superior to physical pleasures. Quantitative utilitarianism entails that all types of happiness are equal or the same. In quantitative utilitarianism what matters most is the quantity or amount of happiness, not what type (Ring, 2010). When speaking of Mills and his approach one would need to consider the strengths and weaknesses of what Mills proposes. The strengths of Mills approach to utilitarianism would be the fact of the only thing of substance or that matters is what happens in one’s life regardless of the intentions (Qizilbash, 2006). One weakness would be the proposal that one’s intentions do Running head: UTILITARIANISM ESSAY 1 not matter or hold any substantial repercussions. One’s intentions can have a very negative affect on themselves but more important on other’s especially innocent by standers. One’s intentions could be of utmost importance to the good of the majority. Another strength of Mills approach is the fact that Mill considers emotions a form of great pleasure (Qizilbash, 2006). This point of the theory shows some impartiality. Mills also mentions general rules, which in turn would allow for the use of universal rules, and this is a strength for sure. In Mills approach one more weakness would be the ability for one to predict the outcome or consequences. More weaknesses than strengths exist in Mills approach, for instance, to get the greatest good for the greatest number can sometimes make the simplest of actions become immoral- for instance buying something for oneself that is not necessarily needed but none the less something desired, but if that money spent could have been spent elsewhere and been more beneficial to a greater number of people then one is considered immoral or acting immoral. Another weakness in Mills approach is a competent person will always pick a higher pleasure over a lower one (Qizilbash, 2006) yet this is neither feasible nor true in all situations. And the major weakness in Mills theory is the assumption that one should pursue something just because it is desirable and produces pleasure, this can have many negative consequences. Thought experiments have been used in every field from mathematics to philosophy. In this thought experiment four people play a question and answer game. There is a score rewarded for each correct answer, and at the end of the game the two highest scoring people will get the chance to walk away with either a large amount of cash for themselves, half of the cash or unfortunately empty handed. In this particular game one will decide to share and divide the cash, or be greedy and try to walk away with all of the cash, but there is that chance of walking away with nothing. Imagine one chooses share and the other chooses keep, then the one who chose keep gets it all, if both choose share then the cash will be divided evenly and both benefit, after Running head: UTILITARIANISM ESSAY 1 all they both worked equally towards this opportunity. But if both choose keep, they will both walk away empty handed with nothing. In this thought experiment we will assume that both people chose share, considering this is the only sure way of walking away with at least half of the cash. This experiment would defend Mills version of utilitarianism on one hand because both people have done what is best for the greater good (Clark, 2003) so what works for the whole and is better for all involved is best. But when considering Mills part of the version that speaks to one always choosing the higher pleasure over the lower one (Qizilbash, 2006) this scenario would critique- the higher pleasure would have been winning all of the cash for oneself, not having to share it and one knows that this is what each person desired, what would give them each much more pleasure, but instead they went for a lower zone of pleasure when deciding to at least walk away with some rather than no cash. In this experiment one can say it defends and critiques Mill’s because Mill’s was contradicting in his approach and views. Mill was known to improve Bentham’s views, and not agree with them, but yet Mill leans towards Bentham’s views in a lot of his approach to utilitarianism. References Clark, K. J. , Poortenga, A. (2003). The story of ethics, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Peck, L. A. (2006). A â€Å"Fool Satisfied†? Journalists and Mill’s Principle of Utility. Running head: UTILITARIANISM ESSAY 1 Journalism Mass Communication Educator, 61(2), 205-213 Qizilbash, M. (2006). Capability, Happiness and Adaption in Sen and J. S. Mill. Utilitas, 18(1), 20-32. doi:10. 1017/SO953820805001809 Ring, L. , Gross, C. R. , McColl, E. (2010, June). Putting the text back into context: toward increased use of mixed methods for quality of life research. Quality of Life Research. pp. 613-615. doi: 10. 1007/S11136-010-9647-z.

ratio analysis Essay -- essays research papers

Financial Ratios: What They MeanIn assessing the significance of various financial data, managers often engage in ratio analysis, the process of determining and evaluating financial ratios. A financial ratio is a relationship that indicates something about a company's activities, such as the ratio between the company's current assets and current liabilities or between its accounts receivable and its annual sales. The basic source for these ratios is the company's financial statements that contain figures on assets, liabilities, profits, and losses. Ratios are only meaningful when compared with other information. Since they are often compared with industry data, ratios help managers understand their company's performance relative to that of competitors and are often used to trace performance over time.Ratio analysis can reveal much about a company and its operations. However, there are several points to keep in mind about ratios. First, a ratio is just one number divided by another. Financial ratios are only "flags" indicating areas of strength or weakness. One or even several ratios might be misleading, but when combined with other knowledge of a company's management and economic circumstances, ratio analysis can tell much about a corporation. Second, there is no single correct value for a ratio. The observation that the value of a particular ratio is too high, too low, or just right depends on the perspective of the analyst and on the company's competitive strategy. Third, a financial ratio is meaningful only when it is compared with some standard, such as an industry trend, ratio trend, a ratio trend for the specific company being analyzed, or a stated management objective.In trend analysis, ratios are compared over time, typically years. Year-to-year comparisons can highlight trends and point up the need for action. Trend analysis works best with three to five years of ratios.The second type of ratio analysis, cross-sectional analysis, compares the ratios of two or more companies in similar lines of business. One of the most popular forms of cross-sectional analysis compares a company's ratios to industry averages. These averages are developed by statistical services and trade associations and are updated annually. Some of these sources will be covered later in this guide.Financial ratios can also give mixed signals about a company's fina... ...h ratio is also given. Almanac of Business and Industrial Financial Ratios. Leo Troy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Annual. (REF HF 5681 .R25 T7)The source of all data are tax returns filed with the U.S. Internal Revenue Service. The most recent edition covers approximately 4.7 million active corporate federal income tax returns, including those owned or controlled by foreign persons. The publication profiles corporate performance in two analytical tables for each industry. Table I reports operating and financial information for all corporations, those with and without net income. Table II provides the same information as Table I, but only for corporations with net income. It provides 50 performance indicators for each industry. At the end of each industry section, performance indicators for the last ten years are shown. Data are grouped into 16 categories by size of assets in each industry. About 180 lines of business are covered.Norms in actual dollars for revenue and capital factors such as net receivables, inventories, and total assets are given. It also gives average operating costs in percent of net sales for: cost of operations, pensions and benefits, comp

Internet in India Essay

We live in an age of information. Today information is power. Those who have it are powerful and those who don’t have it are powerless. The rise of internet as a tool for information and information, in the last decades of the twentieth century has changed the power balances on this globe. The twenty first century has begun with the most populous countries on this world, India and China adopting the internet technology very fast. These two countries share almost 40% of the population on this globe, and the pattern in which they have adopted internet is surely leading them to become super powers in future. This essay discusses how internet has developed in India, what are the reasons behind this development and what could be the future implications of the current status of internet in India. The Beginning In the middle of 1980s, India had a young Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who understood the importance of government policies favoring information technology. He managed to hire services of USA based Indian technocrat, Sam Pitroda, for improvement of the communication scene in India. The foundation stone for a revolution was laid then. While working on the telecommunication aspects, the government realized the fact that internet can be powerful democratizing force, offering greater economic, political, and social participation to communities that have traditionally been underserved- and helping developing nations meet their pressing needs. ( internet growth ). Subsequently, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL), the government agency responsible for telecommunications in India, launched the internet in the year 1995. It was perceived by the government of India that internet would be helpful in the following ways : 1. Open dialogue – The low cost networking would facilitate knowledge sharing, awareness of alternate perspectives and allow more open exchanges. 2. Improve governance – To raise the efficiency of the government by making it more transparent and enabling more public participation. 3. Improve social and human rights condition – Expand access to better quality education, health car, disaster relief capacity and other services. 4. Reduce poverty : Open new avenues and opportunities for income generation for the bypassed groups like women, rural people etc. 5. Introduce more economic opportunities – Through Ecommerce, and other applications of the internet, many new earning opportunities can be created. 6. Improve environmental management – through GIS, early warning systems and various other applications, the environment can be better managed. ( Internet growth) The government also rightfully perceived the emerging globalization phenomenon since 1980s. It was right in believing that if the nation had to survive in this scenario, giving information access to the public is a must, and behind internet, the facilities attached with it, like E-governance, E-Commerce and E-learning are also bound to come. For the first four years, VSNL had the monopoly to provide internet services and was the sole service provider. This monopoly was withdrawn in November 1998, and the field opened up for the private service providers. The terms were very liberal. There was no license fee and unlimited players were allowed to take part. Private ISPs were allowed to fix their own tariffs and set their own gateways also. The department of Telecom (DOT) has issued licenses to almost 100 ISPs in category ‘A’, which is for All India operations, and 220 each for category ‘B’ and ‘C’, which is for metros and state level circles, and medium and small cities, respectively. Out of these, about 184 ISPs have started their operations. ( Internet growth ). Government Initiatives The government of India has laid primary focus on development of internet in India. Some of the measures taken by it, to freely promote the use of internet are ; 1. Formulation of National telecom policy in 1999. Its target is to provide internet services to all district headquarters by 2002. 2. Provide license to private ISPs without any license fee up to October 2002. A token fee of Re. 1 ( 2 cents) per annum, to be levied from November 2003. 3. There is no restriction on the number of ISPs in all categories. 4. ISPs are given permission to set up international gateways by having business arrangement with Foreign Satellites Providers, and collaborators. 5. ISPs permitted to provide last mile access using radio and fiber optics. 6. ISPs also permitted to provide service through cable TV infrastructure /operators 7. Initiated an ambitious plan to develop National Internet Backbone (NIB). 8. Adopted the Information Technology act, a law recognizing electronic transactions and thus providing legal frame work for E-commerce in India 9. Internet telephony services opened up to private service providers from 1 April 2002 ( Internet growth ) Fats and figures The internet industry in India, can be described in the following table in a nut-shell: ISP licences issued Appx. 540 ISPs operational Appx. 185 Cities/towns covered Appx. 340 Internet subscribers Appx. 3. 3 million Cyber cafes/ public access kiosks Appx. 12000 In principle approval for setting up international gateways Appx. 45 ISPs Operational gateways by 8-9 ISPs 40 + Total estimated investment by ISPs Rs, 6000 crores Estimated investment in equipments By ISPs Rs. 2500 crores Estimated employment provided ( direct/ indirect ) 1. 1 lac ( Internet growth ) primary source : Internet services providers association of India. The Internet Growth in India During the initial years, when VSNL had a monopoly on this business, the growth rate was very slow, but no sooner private players were allowed, the growth in internet subscribers was substantial, as proved from the following table : Month/year subscriber base ( million ) August 1995 0. 01 March 1996 0. 05 March 1997 0.09 March 1998 0. 14 March 1999 0. 28 March 2000 0. 90 March 2001 3. 00 March 2002 3. 30 ( Internet Growth ) primary source : Internet services providers association of India Research results Some interesting results are also available from a research study conducted by Larry. Press, William Foster, Peter Wolcott and William McHenry, on the subject of comparison between the internet status in China and India. This paper was published in ‘ First Monday ‘, a Peer reviewed journal on the internet. The authors used a six dimensional framework which characterizes the state of internet in a nation. These are : 1. Pervasiveness : This parameter indicates the number of internet users per capita. 2. Geographic dispersion : This measure the concentration of internet within a nation from none or a single city to nationwide availability. 3. Organizational structure : This is a measure based on the state of the ISP industry and market conditions 4. Connectivity Infrastructure : This is based on domestic and international backbone bandwidth, exchange points and last mile access methods 5. Sectoral absorption – This is a measure of degree of internet utilization in education, business, health care and public sectors. These sectors are seen as key to development and were suggested by the United Nations Development Program. ( UNDP) Human development Index. 6. Sophistication of use – This measure ranks the usage from conventional to highly sophisticated and driving innovation. A conventional nation would be using Internet as substitute for other media like telephone and fax. Pervasiveness India needs to improve upon the following aspects to score more on the Interrnet pervasiveness factor. – With GDP per capita of $ 2358 and a dial-up tariff of $15. 75 per month for 30 hours usage, internet is still unaffordable to most of the Indian population. – With a tele density of 3. 6 in the year 2000, India ranks 145th on a global scale. This has to go up. – Electricity, personal computers and networking equipments are also expensive in India. There are estimated 6 million PCs in India. The equipment cost needs to come down. – Literary rate of India is rather poor at 52%. The secondary school enrollment rate is 39% and mean years of schooling for those who are 15 years and above is only 5. 1 % . Internet cannot spread unless the user is literate. – India has a large population which is very well conversed with English, which is the language mostly used in internet also. This works to India’s advantage. Geographic dispersion Reaching remote villages in the countryside is one of the major hindrance. Most of India’s population lives in villages. The huge investment required for Internet to become accessible from remote villages, is not justified. Low earth orbiting IP satellite technology may solve this problem in future, not only for India but many other developing nations also. Here Indian efforts are commendable. The ministry for Information technology has a working group on Information Technology for Masses that issued a report recommending about 56 actions in infrastructure and service, electronic governance, education and raising mass IT awareness in October 2000. Organizational infrastructure Largely due to a very complex political structure it is difficult to formulate and implement policies in India. The complexities are further enhanced by the law and judiciary system, government inefficiencies, and corruption. The organizational infra structure can be further improved upon, if these bottlenecks are removed. Connectivity infrastructure The key determinants to connectivity infrastructure are trade policy and other factors which encourage investment and the availability of skilled work force. India will see increase in trade as it implements its IT plans. India is also an early mover in software exports, which totaled to 8. 26 billion in 2001. The expatriate trained work force in Europe and United States is also playing a role in growth of internet in India. Most of them have formed joint ventures or set up subsidiaries, back home. This surely enhances the use of internet. Sectoral Absorption The schools and colleges of India have started using the internet on a wide scale, but there is considerable scope for improvement. E-governance and increase in trade will see increased use of internet in future, in India. The relative freedom of states in India is the determining factor here. In the health sector internet is hardly used. Sophistication of use Almost 70% of Indian population lives in villages. If Internet can improve rural education, health care, entertainment, news, economy etc. , the flow of people to the crowded cities can be diminished. India has several projects pursuing village connectivity, but there has not been widespread deployment. ( Press Larry, Foster William, Wolcott Peter & McHenry William ) The ISPs in India There are 183 ISPs in India in total. Out of these, those who have the All India license are as follows : ISPs having all-India licence include: BSNL CMC RPG Infotech Essel Shyam Communications Sify Siti Cable Network Gateway Systems (India) World Phone Internet Services VSNL Guj Info Petro Hughes Escorts Communications Astro India Networks Reliance Primus Telecommunications India ERNET India RailTel Corporation Data Infosys GTL Jumpp India L&T Finance HCL Infinet Primenet Global Tata Internet Services Tata Power Broadband Bharti Infotel Pacific Internet India In2Cable (India) Reliance Engineering Associates BG Broad India Swiftmail Communications Estel Communication Bharti Aquanet Trak Online Net India Spectra Net Reach Network India i2i Enterprise. Tata Teleservices (Maharashtra) Comsat Max Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers Corporation HCL Comnet Systems and Services Harthway Cable ( Indiaonestop ) The role of BSNL in development of Internet in India Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, ( BSNL) the apex body which looks after the telecomm sector in India, was formed in 2000 as a public enterprise. It is India’s largest communication service provider and offers services throughout India, except New Delhi and Bombay. On March 31 2007, it had a customer base of 33. 7 million wirelines, 3. 6 million CDMA-WLL and 27. 5 GSM mobile subscribers. The credit of making Internet popular and affordable to the people of India goes to BSNL. It pioneered in offering the broadband services to its customers, at a unbelievably low rates, under its ‘home’ and ‘business plans’. The cheapest home plan is slated at Rs. 250/- for a usage of 1 GB. This is in sharp contrast to the expensive dial-up networking where the charge was time based, and used to be very high. These plans have become so popular in a short span of 2 years or so, that today, BSNL is the biggest ISP with a market share of about 50%. The Indian communications minister, Dayanidhi Maran, has declared the year 2007 as a ‘ year of broadband ’, and BSNL is targeting 5 million broadband connections by the end of the year 2007. BSNL has two major plans to be executed in the near future. One, to provide a speed of 2 Mb/sec on to all its broadband customers without any extra cost, and two, it is planning to upgrade its broadband services to triple play in 2007. Today, BSNL is India’s one of the largest PSU with a share capital of $ 3. 95 billion, and net worth of US $ 14. 32 billion. ( BSNL ) Most favored outsourcing hub – India The development of internet in India, has opened up many new venues. One of them is outsourcing of work to India. This trend started with outsourcing of medical transcription jobs, which later spread to database management, insurance and the financial sector. Today it has become an authentic hub which is most favored by all. India has got a new identity as a most favored nation for outsourcing. This would have never been possible, without the fast, affordable spread of the internet in India. Of course, India also benefits from its proficiency in English and the perfect time synchronization with the USA and UK. The work hours of USA are night hours in India and vice-versa. The work hours of UK synchronizes with 3 p. m. to 11 p. m. in India. Hence, a file can be sent at the end of the day from UK or USA, work on it is carried out when UK and USA sleep, and the processed file is back to them , when they start their work on the next day. Conclusion Internet is a modern day technological tool, which has considerable advantages. Development of Internet is related to increasing the number of people who can gain an access to it. It is a general assumption made by all, that if more and more people get an access to the Internet, the nation will automatically develop. All debates and research on this subject, is based on the number game. The basic question is : even if Internet is available to every one, will the development be automatic? It has to be borne in mind that Internet is a potentially dangerous tool also, capable of ruining lives, especially of youngsters, if not handled judiciously. Exactly this is happening in India. The government has only concentrated on the number game, taking it for granted that it will be used judiciously for betterment. So far, the only good internet has done is to fill the pockets of the players in this game and provide earning opportunities to a negligible percentage of the population. Any visible advantage to the nation, to the society or to the Indian culture is not witnessed at all. Another colossal mistake the government of India has made is, it has given importance to the IT sector, by bye passing other crucial areas like electric power, education, and health services. Including New Delhi, the capital India, compulsory daily power cuts are very regular !!! What to talk of other cities and the interiors? Hardly anything could be achieved, only by increasing the number of Internet users ! References 1. Internet growth, key learnings from India, Retrieved on 12 May 07 from: < http://www. internetpolicy. net/principles/021122india-lessons. pdf > 2. Press Larry, Foster William, Wolcott Peter & McHenry William, The Internet in India and China, First Monday, a Peer -reviewed journal on the internet, retrieved on 12 May 07 from : < http://www. firstmonday. org/issues/issue7_10/press/ > 3. Indiaonestop, retrieved on 12 May 07 from : < http://indiaonestop. com/ISPS. htm> 4. BSNL, wikipedia the free encyclopedia, 8 May 2007, retrieved on 12 May 07 from: < http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/BSNL>.

The American Revolution Essay - 1458 Words

While many historians might argue that the American Revolution was not so revolutionary in its nature, there is no denying the lasting effects that it has had not only on the continent, but the world. Through an analysis of documents from this period and the social, political, and economic changes that occurred in the colonies, it is clear that the colonial governmental system was radically changed during this time period. The political ideas that emerged from this revolution have shaped modern democratic governments for years, coupled with the advancement of other Enlightenment ideals. Between 1763 and 1776, tensions between the colonists and Britain built steadily. Britain’s fear that the colonies were headed towards independence led them to the institution of major reforms that severely limited the colonies economically and politically. The inevitable backlash to these policies led to even more stringent ones, which convinced the colonists that the British were actively attempting to infringe on their rights as Englishmen. However, â€Å"Until a few months before it happened, nearly all colonists denied that they desired independence..†(LEP,197). Thus, the general population of colonists were not interested in breaking from the mother country until they felt that their rights were being obstructed.(LEP). Thomas Paine’s Common Sense laid bare many of the grievances that colonists had with Britain and the manner that they conducted their affairs on the continent. Paine opensShow MoreRelatedThe American Revolution : The Revolution1367 Words   |  6 PagesThe American Revolution Revolutionizes the World It was the first revolution to majorly succeed and change how people saw their countries, it was the American Revolution. 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